Mice and humans share >90% of the same genes. Genetic linkage mapping, genome sequencing, sophisticated strategies for gene manipulation, and the ability to transfer cells from one inbred mouse to another without eliciting immunological rejection all helped accelerate the application of mice for investigation of human diseases and immunology. Many key advances in biomedicine and immunology made during the last century may not have been possible without the study of animals, in particular mice ( Fig. Use of inbred, congenic, and recombinant congenic mice revealed how polymorphic MHC genes regulate the mammalian immune system ( 7, 8). Mouse models were critical for understanding Ab–Ag interaction, lymphoid differentiation, and the response to infectious agents ( 6). During the mid-twentieth century, the mouse began to play an increasingly important role in immunology research. Questions surrounding genetics of human cancer spurred the creation of several other inbred strains with different levels of tumor susceptibility, including the C57, C58, and C3H strains. Little began creating the first inbred mouse strains (DBA in 1909, C57BL/6 in 1921) to aid in tumor studies and, with Ernest Tyzzer, established basic principles of tissue transplantation ( 6, 7). Mendelian inheritance was demonstrated in mice by French scientist Lucien Cuenot in 1902 and Clarence Cook Little at Harvard in 1910 ( 6). The use of mice as laboratory animals began with the study of genetics by scientists in the early twentieth century. Mice in biomedical research: the good, the bad, and the ugly The breeding of fancy mice in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries led to creation of the laboratory mouse, a mixture of all four subspecies that make up the M. However, hobbyists took an interest in breeding and selling mice with unusual coat colors and behavioral patterns. Although such behaviors prove beneficial for the survival and propagation of the mouse, consumption and contamination of food stores have prompted the view of mice as a pest species. Mice are omnivorous, nocturnal, adapt well to temperature extremes, and with their ability to jump and chew through small openings, they are well poised to take advantage of human food sources in fields, homes, and granaries ( 5). This results in a high degree of inbreeding that, combined with their high mutation rates, contributes to their ability to adapt quickly to environmental changes ( 3, 4). They live in social groups called demes that are composed of a dominant breeding male, a hierarchy of females, subordinate males, and juveniles. Their success as a species can also be attributed to their breeding strategy, resulting in small populations that adapt readily to their surroundings ( 3). The widespread distribution of mice across the globe has been facilitated by their willingness to live in close proximity to humans. castaneus spread into Southeast Asia and M. musculus colonized Central and Eastern Europe and China. domesticus colonized Western Europe, Africa, the Near East, the Americas, and Australia. musculus is comprised of a complex of species. Mice are more closely related to humans than canines as well, sharing a common ancestor only ∼65–75 million years ago ( 1). So, although dogs may be man’s best friends, mice may be humankind’s closest mammalian companion. Although house mice have adapted to live in a variety of climates from arid to tropical, they often compete poorly in the wild with other mouse species and are largely dependent on the trappings of civilization for their success. musculus originated in central Asia and has followed humans across the globe by both land and sea. House mice may have the widest geographical distribution of any mammalian species with the exception of humans. It is said that Mus comes from musaka, the Sanskrit word for thief, highlighting the close but somewhat acrimonious relationship between mice and humans. The house mouse, Mus musculus, represents the dominant in vivo mammalian model in modern biomedical research.
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